Ancient Indus River Valley Lapbook Templates Free Download
The Indus Valley Culture was a cultural and political entity which flourished in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent between c. 7000 - c. 600 BCE. Its modern name derives from its location in the valley of the Indus River, but information technology is besides usually referred to as the Indus-Sarasvati Culture and the Harrapan Civilization.
These latter designations come from the Sarasvati River mentioned in Vedic sources, which flowed adjacent to the Indus River, and the ancient city of Harappa in the region, the first one found in the mod era. None of these names derive from any ancient texts because, although scholars generally believe the people of this culture developed a writing system (known as Indus Script or Harappan Script) it has not yet been deciphered.
All three designations are mod constructs, and cypher is definitively known of the origin, development, refuse, and fall of the culture. Nonetheless, modernistic archaeology has established a likely chronology and periodization:
- Pre-Harappan – c. 7000 - c. 5500 BCE
- Early Harappan – c. 5500 - 2800 BCE
- Mature Harappan – c. 2800 - c. 1900 BCE
- Late Harappan – c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE
- Mail Harappan – c. 1500 - c. 600 BCE
The Indus Valley Civilization is at present oft compared with the far more famous cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, but this is a fairly contempo development. The discovery of Harappa in 1829 CE was the first indication that whatever such civilization existed in India, and by that fourth dimension, Egyptian hieroglyphics had been deciphered, Egyptian and Mesopotamian sites excavated, and cuneiform would soon exist translated by the scholar George Smith (l. 1840-1876 CE). Archaeological excavations of the Indus Valley Culture, therefore, had a significantly late start comparatively, and it is now thought that many of the accomplishments and "firsts" attributed to Egypt and Mesopotamia may actually vest to the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.
The total population of the civilization is idea to accept been upward of 5 million, & its territory stretched over 900 miles (i,500 km) along the Indus River.
The two all-time-known excavated cities of this culture are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (located in modern-day Pakistan), both of which are thought to have once had populations of between 40,000-50,000 people, which is stunning when ane realizes that well-nigh ancient cities had on average 10,000 people living in them. The full population of the civilization is idea to take been upward of 5 million, and its territory stretched over 900 miles (1,500 km) along the banks of the Indus River and then in all directions outward. Indus Valley Culture sites have been plant near the border of Nepal, in Afghanistan, on the coasts of India, and around Delhi, to proper name only a few locations.
Between c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE, the civilization began to pass up for unknown reasons. In the early 20th century CE, this was thought to have been acquired by an invasion of light-skinned peoples from the due north known as Aryans who conquered a dark-skinned people defined by Western scholars as Dravidians. This claim, known as the Aryan Invasion Theory, has been discredited. The Aryans – whose ethnicity is associated with the Iranian Persians – are at present believed to have migrated to the region peacefully and blended their culture with that of the indigenous people while the term Dravidian is understood at present to refer to anyone, of any ethnicity, who speaks one of the Dravidian languages.
Why the Indus Valley Civilisation declined and fell is unknown, but scholars believe it may have had to do with climate alter, the drying upwardly of the Sarasvati River, an alteration in the path of the monsoon which watered crops, overpopulation of the cities, a decline in trade with Arab republic of egypt and Mesopotamia, or a combination of any of the above. In the present day, excavations keep at many of the sites found thus far and some future find may provide more information on the history and refuse of the culture.
Discovery & Early Excavation
The symbols and inscriptions on the artifacts of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which have been interpreted past some scholars as a writing system, remain undeciphered and then archaeologists by and large avert defining an origin for the culture equally any attempt would be speculative. All that can be known of the civilization to date comes from the concrete evidence excavated at diverse sites. The story of the Indus Valley Civilization, therefore, is best given with the discovery of its ruins in the 19th century CE.
James Lewis (better known every bit Charles Masson, l. 1800-1853 CE) was a British soldier serving in the artillery of the E Republic of india Company Army when, in 1827 CE, he deserted with another soldier. In society to avoid detection by authorities, he changed his name to Charles Masson and embarked on a series of travels throughout India. Masson was an avid numismatist (coin collector) who was peculiarly interested in old coins and, in post-obit various leads, wound up excavating ancient sites on his own. One of these sites was Harappa, which he plant in 1829 CE. He seems to have left the site fairly quickly, after making a record of it in his notes but, having no knowledge of who could have built the city, wrongly attributed it to Alexander the Slap-up during his campaigns in India c. 326 BCE.
Indus Valley Civilization - Mature Harappan Phase
When Masson returned to Britain later his adventures (and having been somehow forgiven his desertion), he published his volume Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab in 1842 CE which attracted the attention of the British authorities in Republic of india and, especially, Alexander Cunningham. Sir Alexander Cunningham (l. 1814-1893 CE), a British engineer in the country with a passion for ancient history, founded the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861 CE, an organization dedicated to maintaining a professional standard of excavation and preservation of celebrated sites. Cunningham began excavations of the site and published his interpretation in 1875 CE (in which he identified and named the Indus Script) merely this was incomplete and lacked definition because Harappa remained isolated with no connection to any known past civilization which could have built it.
In 1904 CE, a new manager of the ASI was appointed, John Marshall (l. 1876-1958 CE), who subsequently visited Harappa and concluded the site represented an ancient civilization previously unknown. He ordered the site to be fully excavated and, at about the same time, heard of another site some miles abroad which the local people referred to equally Mohenjo-daro ("the mound of the expressionless") because of bones, both animate being and human, establish in that location forth with diverse artifacts. Excavations at Mohenjo-daro began in the 1924-1925 season and the similarities of the two sites were recognized; the Indus Valley Civilization had been discovered.
Harappa & Mohenjo-daro
The Hindu texts known equally the Vedas, also equally other slap-up works of Indian tradition such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, were already well known to Western scholars but they did not know what culture had created them. Systemic racism of the time prevented them from attributing the works to the people of India, and the same, at first, led archaeologists to conclude that Harappa was a colony of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia or perhaps an Egyptian outpost.
Harappa
Harappa did not arrange to either Egyptian or Mesopotamian architecture, however, as there was no evidence of temples, palaces, or awe-inspiring structures, no names of kings or queens or stelae or imperial bronze. The city spread over 370 acres (150 hectares) of small, brick houses with flat roofs made of clay. There was a citadel, walls, the streets were laid out in a filigree pattern clearly demonstrating a high degree of skill in urban planning and, in comparing the two sites, it was apparent to the excavators that they were dealing with a highly advanced civilisation.
Houses in both cities had affluent toilets, a sewer system, and fixtures on either side of the streets were part of an elaborate drainage arrangement, which was more advanced even than that of the early Romans. Devices known from Persia as "wind catchers" were attached to the roofs of some buildings which provided air workout for the home or administrative function and, at Mohenjo-daro, there was a great public bath, surrounded by a courtyard, with steps leading downwards into it.
Every bit other sites were unearthed, the same degree of sophistication and skill came to light as well every bit the understanding that all of these cities had been pre-planned. Unlike those of other cultures which commonly developed from smaller, rural communities, the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had been thought out, a site chosen, and purposefully constructed prior to total dwelling house. Further, they all exhibited conformity to a single vision which further suggested a strong central regime with an efficient bureaucracy that could plan, fund, and build such cities. Scholar John Keay comments:
What amazed all these pioneers, and what remains the distinctive characteristic of the several hundred Harappan sites now known, is their apparent similarity: "Our overwhelming impression is of cultural uniformity, both throughout the several centuries during which the Harappan civilization flourished, and over the vast area information technology occupied." The ubiquitous bricks, for case, are all of standardized dimensions, just as the rock cubes used past the Harappans to measure weights are also standard and based on the modular organization. Road widths adapt to a similar module; thus, streets are typically twice the width of side lanes, while the master arteries are twice or one and a half times the width of streets. About of the streets so far excavated are straight and run either north-south or east-west. City plans therefore conform to a regular filigree blueprint and appear to have retained this layout through several phases of building. (9)
Excavations at both sites continued betwixt 1944-1948 CE under the direction of the British archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler (l. 1890-1976 CE) whose racialist ideology made it hard for him to accept that dark-skinned people had congenital the cities. Even and so, he managed to institute stratigraphy for Harappa and lay the foundation for the afterward periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Not bad Bath, Mohenjo-daro
Chronology
Wheeler's work provided archaeologists with the means to recognize approximate dates from the culture's foundations through its reject and fall. The chronology is primarily based, as noted, on physical evidence from Harappan sites but also from knowledge of their trade contacts with Egypt and Mesopotamia. Lapis lazuli, to name merely one product, was immensely popular in both cultures and, although scholars knew it came from India, they did not know from precisely where until the Indus Valley Culture was discovered. Fifty-fifty though this semi-precious stone would continue to exist imported after the fall of the Indus Valley Civilisation, it is clear that, initially, some of the export came from this region.
- Pre-Harappan – c. 7000 - c. 5500 BCE: The Neolithic period all-time exemplified by sites like Mehrgarh which shows prove of agricultural development, domestication of plants and animals, and production of tools and ceramics.
- Early Harappan – c. 5500-2800 BCE: Merchandise firmly established with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and peradventure China. Ports, docks, and warehouses built near waterways by communities living in small villages.
- Mature Harappan – c. 2800 - c. 1900 BCE: Construction of the great cities and widespread urbanization. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro are both flourishing c. 2600 BCE. Other cities, such as Ganeriwala, Lothal, and Dholavira are built according to the same models and this evolution of the land continues with the construction of hundreds of other cities until in that location are over ane,000 of them throughout the land in every direction.
- Late Harappan – c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE: Reject of the civilisation coinciding with a wave of migration of the Aryan people from the n, most likely the Iranian Plateau. Physical prove suggests climatic change which caused flooding, drought, and dearth. A loss of merchandise relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia has also been suggested as a contributing cause.
- Post Harappan – c. 1500 - c. 600 BCE: The cities are abandoned, and the people have moved south. The civilization has already fallen past the time Cyrus Two (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE) invades India in 530 BCE.
Aspects of Civilisation
The people seem to take been primarily artisans, farmers, and merchants. There is no evidence of a standing army, no palaces, and no temples. The Great Bathroom at Mohenjo-daro is believed to have been used for ritual purification rites related to religious conventionalities simply this is conjecture; information technology could as easily take been a public pool for recreation. Each city seems to take had its own governor but, information technology is speculated, at that place must have been some grade of centralized regime in club to achieve the uniformity of the cities. John Keay comments:
Harappan tools, utensils, and materials ostend this impression of uniformity. Unfamiliar with fe – which was nowhere known in the tertiary millennium BC – the Harappans sliced, scraped, beveled, and bored with 'effortless competence' using a standardized kit of tools fabricated from chert, a kind of quartz, or from copper and bronze. These terminal, along with gold and silver, were the just metals available. They were also used for casting vessels and statuettes and for fashioning a variety of knives, fishhooks, arrowheads, saws, chisels, sickles, pins, and bangles. (10)
Among the thousands of artifacts discovered at the various sites are small, soapstone seals a little over an inch (3 cm) in diameter which archaeologists interpret to take been used for personal identification in trade. Like the cylinder seals of Mesopotamia, these seals are thought to have been used to sign contracts, qualify land sales, and authenticate betoken-of-origin, shipment, and receipt of appurtenances in trade long altitude.
Unicorn Seal - Indus Script
The people had developed the cycle, carts drawn by cattle, apartment-bottomed boats broad enough to send trade goods, and may have also developed the sail. In agriculture, they understood and made use of irrigation techniques and canals, various farming implements, and established different areas for cattle grazing and crops. Fertility rituals may have been observed for a full harvest as well as pregnancies of women as evidenced by a number of figurines, amulets, and statuettes in female grade. It is thought that the people may accept worshipped a Female parent Goddess deity and, mayhap, a male person consort depicted as a horned figure in the company of wild animals. The religious beliefs of the culture, however, are unknown and whatever suggestions must exist speculative.
Their level of artistic skill is evident through numerous finds of bronze, soapstone seals, ceramics, and jewelry. The most famous artwork is the statuary statuette, standing four inches (ten cm) tall, known as "Dancing Girl" found at Mohenjo-daro in 1926 CE. The piece shows a teenage daughter, correct hand on her hip, left on her human knee, with chin raised equally though evaluating the claims of a suitor. An as impressive piece is a soapstone figure, half dozen inches (17 cm) alpine, known as the Priest-King, depicting a bearded human being wearing a headdress and ornamental armband.
Dancing Daughter of Mohenjo-daro
A especially interesting aspect of the artwork is the advent of what seems to be a unicorn on over 60 percent of the personal seals. There are many unlike images on these seals simply, as Keay notes, the unicorn appears on "1156 seals and sealings out of a total of 1755 constitute at Mature Harappan sites" (17). He likewise notes that the seals, no affair what image appears on them, also take markings which accept been interpreted as Indus Script, suggesting that the "writing" conveys a meaning different from the image. The "unicorn" could possibly have represented an private'due south family, clan, metropolis, or political affiliation and the "writing" one'due south personal data.
Decline & Aryan Invasion Theory
Just every bit there is no definitive answer to the question of what the seals were, what the "unicorn" represented, or how the people venerated their gods, in that location is none for why the civilization declined and savage. Between c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE, the cities were steadily abandoned, and the people moved s. As noted, there are a number of theories apropos this, simply none are completely satisfactory. Co-ordinate to 1, the Gaggar-Hakra River, which is identified with the Sarasvati River from Vedic texts, and which ran side by side to the Indus River, stale up c. 1900 BCE, necessitating a major relocation of the people who had depended on information technology. Significant silting at sites such as Mohenjo-daro suggests major flooding which is given as another cause.
Priest-king from Mohenjo-daro
Some other possibility is a drop in necessary trade goods. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were experiencing troubles during this same time which could have resulted in a significant disruption in trade. The Late Harappan Menstruation corresponds roughly with the Middle Bronze Age in Mesopotamia (2119-1700 BCE) during which the Sumerians – the major trading partners with the people of the Indus Valley – were engaged in driving out the Gutian invaders and, between c. 1792-1750 BCE, the Babylonian rex Hammurabi was conquering their city-states as he consolidated his empire. In Egypt, the catamenia corresponds to the latter part of the Centre Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) when the weak 13th Dynasty ruled just prior to the coming of the Hyksos and the central government'southward loss of power and authority.
The reason which early 20th century CE scholars seized on, notwithstanding, was none of these but the claim that the Indus Valley people had been conquered and driven due south by an invasion of a superior race of calorie-free-skinned Aryans.
Aryan Invasion Theory
Western scholars had been translating and interpreting the Vedic literature of India for over 200 years by the time Wheeler was excavating the sites and, in that time, came to develop the theory that the subcontinent was at some point conquered by a light-skinned race known as Aryans who established high culture throughout the land. This theory developed slowly and, at offset, innocently through the publication of a work by the Anglo-Welsh philologist Sir William Jones (l. 1746-1794 CE) in 1786 CE. Jones, an avid reader of Sanskrit, noted that there were remarkable similarities between it and European languages and claimed there had to exist a mutual source for all of them; he called this source Proto-Indo-European.
After Western scholars, trying to place Jones' "mutual source", ended that a lite-skinned race from the north – somewhere around Europe – had conquered the lands south, notably Bharat, establishing culture and spreading their linguistic communication and customs, even though zip, considerately, supported this view. A French elitist writer named Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (fifty. 1816-1882 CE) popularized this view in his work An Essay on the Inequality of the Homo Races in 1855 CE and asserted that superior, low-cal-skinned, races had "Aryan blood" and were naturally disposed to dominion over lesser races.
The early on Iranians self-identified as Aryan, meaning "noble" or "gratuitous" or "civilized", until information technology was corrupted by European racists to serve their ain agenda.
Gobineau's volume was admired by the German composer Richard Wagner (l. 1813-1883 CE) whose British-born son-in-law, Houston Stewart Chamberlain (l. 1855-1927 CE) further popularized these views in his work which would eventually influence Adolf Hitler and the architect of the Nazi credo, Alfred Rosenberg (l. 1893-1946 CE). These racialist views were given further validity by a German language philologist and scholar who did not share them, Max Muller (l. 1823-1900 CE), the so-called "author" of the Aryan Invasion Theory who insisted, in all of his work, that Aryan had to do with a linguistic difference and had nothing at all to do with ethnicity.
It hardly mattered what Muller said, notwithstanding, considering, past the fourth dimension Wheeler was excavating the sites in the 1940s CE, people had been breathing in these theories with the air of the times for well over 50 years. It would be decades more than before the majority of scholars, writers, and academics would begin to recognize that 'Aryan' originally referred to a class of people – having nothing to do with race – and, in the words of the archaeologist J. P. Mallory, "as an ethnic designation the word [Aryan] is most properly limited to the Indo-Iranians" (Farrokh, 17). The early Iranians self-identified equally Aryan pregnant "noble" or "free" or "civilized" and the term connected in utilize for over 2000 years until it was corrupted past European racists to serve their own calendar.
Wheeler's interpretation of the sites was informed by and and then validated the Aryan Invasion Theory. The Aryans were already recognized as the authors of the Vedas and other works just their dates in the region were too late to back up the claim that they had built the impressive cities; perhaps, though, they had destroyed them. Wheeler was, of course, equally aware of the Aryan Invasion Theory equally whatsoever other archeologist at the time and, through this lens, interpreted what he found every bit supporting it; in doing so, he validated the theory which so gained greater popularity and acceptance.
Determination
The Aryan Invasion Theory, though still cited and advanced by those with a racialist calendar, lost credence in the 1960s CE through the work, primarily, of the American archaeologist George F. Dales who reviewed Wheeler'southward interpretations, visited the sites, and constitute no prove to support information technology. The skeletons Wheeler had interpreted as dying a violent death in battle showed no such signs nor did the cities exhibit any damage associated with state of war.
Further, there was no prove of whatever kind of mobilization of a not bad army of the north nor of whatever conquest c. 1900 BCE in India. The Persians – the only ethnicity self-identifying every bit Aryan – were themselves a minority on the Iranian Plateau betwixt c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE and in no position to mount an invasion of any kind. It was therefore suggested that the "Aryan Invasion" was actually nigh likely a migration of Indo-Iranians who merged peacefully with the ethnic people of Republic of india, intermarried, and were assimilated into the civilization.
As excavations of the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization keep, more data will no doubt contribute to a meliorate understanding of its history and development. Recognition of the culture's vast accomplishments and loftier level of applied science and sophistication has been increasingly coming to light and gaining greater attending. Scholar Jeffrey D. Long expresses the general sentiment, writing, "there is much fascination with this civilization because of its high level of technological advancement" (198). Already, the Indus Valley Civilization is referenced as 1 of the iii greatest of antiquity alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia, and future excavations volition almost surely elevate its standing even higher.
This commodity has been reviewed for accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards prior to publication.
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